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Arizona Biodesign Institute

Arizona Biodesign Institute

About the Facility

The Biodesign Institute is Arizona’s largest investment in bioscience infrastructure. The Biodesign Institute is located on the campus of Arizona State University and is led by Dr. George Poste, an established leader in international science with extensive experience in academia, industry and government. The Institute is organized into a rapidly-growing number of research centers staffed by top scientists in diverse disciplines.

Centers within the facility

- Applied NanoBioscience
- Bioelectronics and Biosensors
- BioOptical Nanotechnology
- Cancer Research Institute
- Environmental Biotechnology
- Evolutionary Functional Genomics
- Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology
- Innovations in Medicine
- Neural Interface Design
- Protein and Peptide Therapeutics
- Rehabilitation Neuroscience and Rehabilitation Engineering
- Single Molecule Biophysic More information can be found at http://www.asu.edu/biodesign/ Category:Arizona State University

Arizona

Arizona is a large state in the western United States. It is best known for its desert landscape, which includes cacti. Arizona is also known for its exceptionally hot summers and mild winters. Less well known is the pine-covered high country in the north-central portion of the state, which contrasts with the lower deserts of the state. Arizona is one of the Four Corners states, situated south and east of the Colorado River. It borders New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, touches Colorado, and has a long international border with Mexico. Arizona is the sixth largest state in area, after New Mexico and before Nevada. Aside from the Grand Canyon, a number of other National Forests, Parks, Monuments, and Indian reservations are located in the state. Three ships named USS Arizona have been named in honor of the state, although only USS Arizona (BB-39) was so named after statehood was achieved.

Origin of the name

Historians disagree about the origin of the name "Arizona" and its attachment to the region. Two possible derivations are:
- O'odham words "alĭ ṣon" ("small spring"), actually the name of a town which is called "Arizonac" in English. Arizonac is a small town about eight miles (12 km) south of the United States–Mexican border. Historically, it may have been "alĭ son" or even "alĭ sona". The O'odham "l" is a voiced alveolar lateral fricative, which might sound to a Spanish or English speaker like an "r" sound. Later in the mid 18th century Spanish missionaries changed Father Eusebio Francisco Kino's maps of the area; they renamed the town Arizonac as Arizona. As the maps were republished and circulated in Europe, the name Arizona became attached to the whole northern part of New Spain.
- Spanish words "árida zona" ("arid zone") However, this would be grammatically incorrect because in Spanish, the noun precedes the adjective.

History

Main article: History of Arizona Beyond its original native inhabitants, Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan, explored the area in 1539. Coronado's expedition entered the area in 1540–42 during its search for Cibola. Father Kino developed a chain of missions and taught the Indians Christianity in Pimería Alta (now southern Arizona and northern Sonora) in the 1690s and early 1700s. Spain founded fortified towns (presidios) at Tubac in 1752 and Tucson in 1775. All of what is now Arizona became part of Mexico's northwest frontier upon the Mexican assertion of independence from Spain in 1810. The United States took possession of most of Arizona at the end of the Mexican War in 1848. In 1853 the land below the Gila River was acquired from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase. Arizona was administered as part of the Territory of New Mexico until it was organized into a separate territory on February 24, 1863. Brigham Young sent Mormons to Arizona in the mid to late 1800s. They founded Mesa, Snowflake, Heber, Safford and other towns. They also settled in the Phoenix Valley (or "Valley of the Sun"), Tempe, Prescott, among other areas. Arizona was the site of a German and Italian prisoner of war camp during WWII. The site was purchased after the war by the Maytag family, and is currently the Phoenix Zoo. A Japanese internment camp was located on Mount Lemmon, just outside of the southeastern city of Tucson. Arizona was admitted into the Union on February 14, 1912.

Law and government

See: List of Congressmen Arizona's legislature consists of a thirty-member Senate and a 60-member House of Representatives. The majority party is the Republican Party, which has held power since 1950. The 2002 budget of the Arizona state legislature was $14.3 billion, while the executive budget was $13.8 billion. Besides the money spent on state agencies, money has also been allocated for tax cuts, pay raises for government employees, and health insurance for government employees. The executive budget has allocated money to previously passed legislation. Arizona state senators and representatives are elected for two year terms and there are no terms limits. However, no more than four terms may be served consecutively. Arizona's executive branch is headed by a governor elected for a four-year term. The governor may serve any number of terms, though no more than two in a row. The current Governor of Arizona is Janet Napolitano, a Democrat. She has been governor since 2003. See:List of Arizona Governors The two US Senators from Arizona are Senator John McCain (Republican) and Senator Jon Kyl (Republican). Arizona's representatives in the United States House of Representatives are Rick Renzi (R-1), Trent Franks (R-2), John Shadegg (R-3), Ed Pastor (D-4), J.D. Hayworth (R-5), Jeff Flake (R-6), Raul Grijalva (D-7), and Jim Kolbe (R-8). Arizona gained two seats in the House of Representatives due to redistricting based on Census 2000. Jim Kolbe is currently the only openly gay Republican U.S. Congressman. While the Republican Party has long dominated Arizona, the state did support one recent Democratic candidate, Bill Clinton in 1996. In 2004, George W. Bush easily won the state's ten electoral votes by a margin of 11 percentage points with 54.9% of the vote. Democrats are strongest in Tucson, Yuma, and Santa Cruz and Apache counties.

Geography

Apache Like other states of the Southwest, Arizona has an abundance of topographical characteristics in addition to its desert climes. More than half of the state features mountains and plateaus and contains the largest stand of Ponderosa pine in the United States. The Mogollon Rim, a 600-meter (2000-foot) escarpment, cuts across the central section of the state and marks the southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau, where the state experienced its worst forest fire ever in 2002. The Grand Canyon is a colorful, steep-sided gorge, carved by the Colorado River, in northern Arizona. The canyon is one of the seven natural wonders of the world and is largely contained in the Grand Canyon National Park—one of the first national parks in the United States. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of the Grand Canyon area, visiting on numerous occasions to hunt mountain lion and enjoy the breathtaking scenery. The canyon, created by the Colorado River cutting a channel over millions of years, is about 277 miles (446 km) long, ranges in width from 6 to 29 kilometers (4 to 18 miles) and attains a depth of more than 1 mile (1.6 km). Nearly 2 billion years of the Earth's history has been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut through layer after layer of sediment as the Colorado Plateaus have uplifted. :Statistics :
- Largest City: Phoenix :
- Highest Point: Humphreys Peak - 12,633 ft. (3,851 m) near Flagstaff :
- Lowest Point: Colorado River - 70 ft. (21 m)

Art

Arizona has witnessed a continuous string of dancing and performing groups of many ethnicities. The state is a recognized center of Native American art, with a number of galleries such as the Heard Museum showcasing historical and contemporary works. Sedona and Tubac are known as budding artist colonies, and small arts scenes exist in the larger cities and near the state universities. Many tourist souvenirs produced in Arizona or by its residents display immediately characteristic images, such as sunsets, coyotes, and desert plants. Several major Hollywood films, such as U-Turn, Waiting to Exhale, Just One of the Guys, Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure, and Raising Arizona have been made there (as indeed have many Westerns).

Climate

Due to its large area and variations in elevation, the state has a wide variety of climates. In the lower elevations, the climate is primarily desert, with mild winters and hot summers. Typically, from late fall to early spring, the weather is mild, averaging a minimum of 60 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius). November through February are the coldest months with temperatures typically ranging from 40–75 degrees Fahrenheit (4–24 degrees Celsius), although occasional frosts are not uncommon. About midway through February, the temperatures start to rise again with sunny warm days, and cool breezy nights. The summer months of May through August bring a dry heat ranging from 90–100 degrees Fahrenheit (35 to 40 degrees Celsius), with occasional high temperatures exceeding 125 °F (50 °C) having been observed in the desert area. Due to the primarily dry climate, large temperature swings often occur between day and night, with some as large as 50 °F (28 °C) in the summer months. However, the northern third of Arizona is a plateau at significantly higher altitudes than the lower desert, and has an appreciably cooler climate, with cold winters and mild summers. Extreme cold temperatures are not unknown; cold air systems from the northern states and Canada occasionally push into the state, bringing temperatures below 0 °F (-20 °C) to the higher parts of the state. Monsoon season in Arizona is from the end of July through August. Monsoon season storms bring lightning, thunderstorms, wind, and torrential, if usually brief, downpours. It is rare for tornadoes to occur in Arizona. Indicative of the variation in climate, Arizona is the state which has both the metropolitan area with the most days over 100 degrees Fahrenheit (Phoenix), and the metropolitan area in the lower 48 states with the most days with a low temperature below freezing (Flagstaff).

Economy

The 2004 total gross state product was $187.27 billion. If Arizona were an independent country, it would have the 61^st largest economy in the world ([http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html CIA - The World Factbook]). This figure gives Arizona a larger economy than most other countries, including Norway, Denmark, Czech Republic, Ireland, Finland, and New Zealand. Arizona currently has the 21^st largest economy among states in the U.S.. The state's per capita income is $27,232, 39^th in the U.S. Early in its history, Arizona's economy relied on the "Five C's": copper, cotton, cattle, citrus, and climate (tourism). At one point Arizona was the largest producer of cotton in the country. Copper is still extensively mined from many expansive open-pit and underground mines, accounting for two-thirds of the nation's output. The state government is the Arizona's largest employer, while Wal-Mart is the state's largest private employer, with 17,343 employees (2003). Arizona lost much of its comparative advantage as a high-tech industry leader between 1990 and 2001, according to a state [http://www.commerce.state.az.us/ Department of Commerce] report. In 2001, 161,166 Arizonans were employed in the high-tech sector, accounting for about 8.3 percent of total private-sector employment of more than 1.9 million. High-tech payroll in 2001 was $2.2 billion, or 14.7 percent of the private-sector total. High-tech employment was led by software and computers, with 34,314; electronics components manufacturing, 30,358; aerospace manufacturing, 25,641; architectural and engineering services, 21,378; telecommunications, 21,224; and instruments manufacturing, 13,056.

Demographics

As of 2004, Arizona had a population of 5,743,834 according Census Bureau estimates. The racial breakdown of the state is as follows:
- 63.8% White non-Hispanic
- 25.3% Hispanic
- 5% Native American
- 3.1% Black
- 1.8% Asian
- 2.9% Mixed race According to 2003 Census estimates, Arizona has the second highest number (and the 6th highest percentage) of Native Americans of any state in the Union. 286,680 reportedly live in Arizona, representing more than 10% of the country's total Indian population of 2,752,158. Only California has more Indians than Arizona, and Arizona has slightly more Indians than Oklahoma [http://eire.census.gov/popest/data/states/ST-EST2002-ASRO-03.php]. The largest ancestry groups in Arizona are Mexican (21%), German, British, Irish, and American Indian. The southern and central parts of the state are heavily Mexican-American, especially in Yuma and Santa Cruz County. The north-central and northwestern counties are largely inhabited by residents of British ancestry. The northeastern part of Arizona has many American Indians. Arizona is likely to become a minority-majority state by the year 2035, if current population growth trends continue. In 2003, for the first time, there were more Hispanic births in the state than white non-Hispanic births. As of 2000, 74.1% of Arizona residents age 5 and older speak English at home and 19.5% speak Spanish. Navajo is the third most spoken language at 1.9%, followed by Other Native North American languages at 0.6% and German at 0.5%. 49.9% of the population is male, 50.1% is female. See also the list of Arizona Natives.

Religion

Four in five Arizonans are self-described Christians, with large numbers of both Catholics and Protestants living in the state. There is also a significant Mormon population. Religious affiliations in Arizona:
- Christian – 80%
- Protestant – 42%
- Baptist – 9%
- Methodist – 5%
- Lutheran – 4%
- Other Protestant/general Protestant – 24%
- Roman Catholic – 31%
- Mormon – 6%
- Other Christian – 1%
- Other Religions – 2%
- Non-Religious – 18%

Important cities and towns

Mormon Mormon See: List of cities in Arizona, List of cities in Arizona (by population), List of Arizona counties Phoenix is the largest, primary city and capital of the state. The Phoenix metro area includes Mesa, Glendale, Chandler, Tempe, and Scottsdale. The Phoenix metropolitan area supports a population of nearly 3.5 million. Tucson, is the state's second largest city, located 135 miles (220 km) southeast of the Phoenix metropolitan area. The Tucson metropolitan area has a population rapidly nearing 1 million. Each city named in bold has a population greater than 100,000.

25 Richest Places in Arizona

Ranked by per capita income

Notable people

Famous Arizonans also include retiring Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, author Zane Grey, former Governor and Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt, architect Frank Lloyd Wright, Presidential candidate (1964) and former Senator Barry Goldwater, Presidential candidate (2000) and Senior Republican Senator John McCain, former senator Carl Hayden and former Solicitor General Rex E. Lee, From the rock and roll world, both Alice Cooper and Stevie Nicks of Fleetwood Mac are from Phoenix; Linda Ronstadt is from Tucson. Film director Steven Spielberg grew up in Scottsdale, as did Wonder Woman star Lynda Carter. Labor leader Cesar Estrada Chavez is from Yuma. For a complete list, see List of people from Arizona.
Education

Colleges and universities

State universities
(Ranked by student enrollment)
- Arizona State University
- University of Arizona
- Northern Arizona University
Community colleges

- Chandler-Gilbert Community College
- Estrella Mountain Community College
- GateWay Community College
- Glendale Community College
- Mesa Community College
- Paradise Valley Community College
- Phoenix College
- Rio Salado Community College
- Scottsdale Community College
- South Mountain Community College
- Pima Community College
- Desert Vista Campus
- Downtown Campus
- East Campus
- Northwest Campus
- West Campus
- Eastern Arizona College
- Yavapai Community College
- Prescott College
- Cochise College
- Mohave Community College
- South Mountain Community College
- Arizona Western College
- Northland Pioneer College
Private colleges and trade schools

- American Indian College of the Assemblies of God
- Art Institute of Phoenix
- Collins College, Tempe
- DeVry University, Phoenix
- Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
- Grand Canyon University
- Prescott College
- Southwestern College
- Thunderbird - The Garvin School of International Management
- University of Phoenix
- Western International University
Education associations

- Arizona Music Educators Association
Professional sports teams

- Arizona Cardinals (National Football League)
- Arizona Diamondbacks (Major League Baseball)
- Arizona Rattlers (Arena Football League)
- Arizona Sting (National Lacrosse League)
- Mesa Miners (Golden Baseball League)
- Phoenix Coyotes (National Hockey League)
- Phoenix Mercury (Women's National Basketball Association)
- Phoenix Roadrunners (East Coast Hockey League)
- Phoenix Suns (National Basketball Association)
- Surprise Fightin' Falcons (Golden Baseball League)
- Tucson Sidewinders (Minor League Baseball)
- Yuma Scorpions (Golden Baseball League)
Spring training
Arizona is a popular location for Major League Baseball spring training, as it is the site of the Cactus League. The state hosts the following teams:
- Arizona Diamondbacks in Tucson Electric Park
- Chicago Cubs in HoHoKam Park
- Chicago White Sox in Tucson Electric Park
- Colorado Rockies in Hi Corbett Field
- Kansas City Royals in Surprise Stadium
- Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in Tempe Diablo Stadium
- Milwaukee Brewers in Maryvale Baseball Park
- Oakland Athletics in Phoenix Municipal Stadium
- San Diego Padres in Peoria Sports Complex
- San Francisco Giants in Scottsdale Stadium
- Seattle Mariners in Peoria Sports Complex
- Texas Rangers in Surprise Stadium
References

External links

- [http://www.funonthenet.in/content/view/145/31/ Arizona Pictures]
- [http://www.az.gov/webapp/portal/ Arizona @ Your Service]
- [http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/map/map.asp?po=AZ Arizona Regional Accounts Data]
- [http://www.fedstats.gov/qf/states/04000.html Arizona Demographic Data from FedStats]
- [http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/tables/redist_az.html Census 2000 Data for Arizona]
- [http://www.arizonaguide.com/home.asp Official Arizona Office of Tourism]
- [http://www.pr.state.az.us/Parks/parksites.html Arizona State Parks]
- [http://www.HavenWorks.com/arizona Arizona News]
- [http://www.lib.az.us/ Arizona State Library, Archives and Public Records]
- [http://www.raybarnesreelectdistrict7.com Arizona State Representative, District 7]
- [http://www.azpaths.com Arizona Paths - All-About-Arizona]
- [http://www.Untraveledroad.com/USA/Arizona.htm Photographic virtual tour of Arizona.]
- [http://www.terragalleria.com/america/arizona/ Photos of Arizona - Terra Galleria]
- [http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/arizona Arizona Newspapers]
- [http://www.azcentral.com/]
- [http://www.dannyburk.com/arizona%20landscapes%20i.htm Pictures of Arizona - Grand Canyon and other National Parks] Category:States of the American West
- Category:States of the United States zh-min-nan:Arizona ko:애리조나 주 ms:Arizona ja:アリゾナ州 simple:Arizona

Bioscience

Biology is the study, or science, of life. It is concerned with the characteristics and behaviors of organisms, how species and individuals come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the environment. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, together they address the phenomenon of life over a wide range of scales. At the atomic and molecular scale, life is studied in the disciplines of molecular biology, biochemistry, and molecular genetics. At the level of the cell, it is studied in cell biology, and at multicellular scales, it is examined in physiology, anatomy, and histology. Developmental biology studies life at the level of an individual organism's development or ontogeny. Moving up the scale towards more than one organism, genetics considers how heredity works between parent and offspring. Ethology considers group behavior of more than one individual. Population genetics looks at the level of an entire population, and systematics considers the multi-species scale of lineages. Interdependent populations and their habitats are examined in ecology and evolutionary biology. A speculative new field is astrobiology (or xenobiology), which examines the possibility of life beyond the Earth.

Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle

Principles of biology

Unlike physics, biology does not usually describe systems in terms of objects which obey immutable physical laws described by mathematics. Nevertheless, the biological sciences are characterized and unified by several major underlying principles and concepts: universality, evolution, diversity, continuity, homeostasis, and interactions.

Universality: Biochemistry, cells, and the genetic code

mathematics]] Main articles: Life The most salient example of biological universality is that all living things share a common carbon-based biochemistry and in particular pass on their characteristics via genetic material, which is based on nucleic acids such as DNA and which uses a common genetic code with only minor variations. Another universal principle is that all organisms (that is, all forms of life on Earth except for viruses) are made of cells. Similarly, all organisms share common developmental processes. For example, in most metazoan organisms, the basic stages of early embryonic development share similar morphological characteristics and include similar genes.

Evolution: The central principle of biology

Main article: Evolution The central organizing concept in biology is that all life has a common origin and has changed and developed through the process of evolution (see Common descent). This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section. Charles Darwin established evolution as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, natural selection (Alfred Russell Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept). Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory. The evolutionary history of a species— which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended— together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of DNA sequences conducted within molecular biology or genomics, and comparisons of fossils or other records of ancient organisms in paleontology. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics (The major events in the evolution of life, as biologists currently understand them, are summarized on this evolutionary timeline).

Diversity: The variety of living organisms

evolutionary timeline, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially by Carl Woese. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.]] Despite its underlying unity, life exhibits an astonishingly wide diversity in morphology, behavior, and life histories. In order to grapple with this diversity, biologists attempt to classify all living things. Scientific classification seeks to reflect the evolutionary trees (phylogenetic trees) of the organism being classified. Classification is the province of the disciplines of systematics and taxonomy. Taxonomy places organisms in groups called taxa, while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other. This clasification technique has evolved to reflect advances in cladistics and genetics, shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to phylogenetics. Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms: :Monera -- Protista -- Fungi -- Plantae -- Animalia However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system to be outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the three-domain system: :Archaea (originally Archaebacteria) -- Bacteria (originally Eubacteria) -- Eukaryota These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors. There is also a series of intracellular parasites that are progressively "less alive" in terms of metabolic activity: :Viruses -- Viroids -- Prions

Continuity: The common descent of life

Main article: Common descent Up into the 19th century, it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see abiogenesis). This misconception was challenged by William Harvey's diction that "all life [is] from [an] egg" (from the Latin "Omne vivum ex ovo"), a foundational concept of modern biology. It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time. A group of organisms is said to share a common descent if they share a common ancestor. All organisms on the Earth have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. Biologists generally regard the universality of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (see: origin of life).

Homeostasis: Adapting to change

Main article: Homeostasis Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable condition by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis. Homeostasis manifests itself at the cellular level through the maintenance of a stable internal acidity (pH); at the organismic level, warm-blooded animals maintain a constant internal body temperature; and at the level of the ecosystem, as when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise and plants are theoretically able to grow healthier and remove more of the gas from the atmosphere. Tissues and organs can also maintain homeostasis.

Interactions: Groups and environments

organ of the genus Amphiprion that dwell among the tentacles of tropical sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protects the anemone fish from its predators]] Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its environment. One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales. A microscopic bacterium responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a lion is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the African savannah. For any given species, behaviors can be co-operative, aggressive, parasitic or symbiotic. Matters become more complex when two or more different species interact in an ecosystem. Studies of this type are the province of ecology.

Scope of biology

Main article: List of biology disciplines Biology has become such a vast research enterprise that it is not generally regarded as a single discipline, but as a number of clustered sub-disciplines. This article considers four broad groupings. The first group consists of those disciplines that study the basic structures of living systems: cells, genes etc.; the second group considers the operation of these structures at the level of tissues, organs, and bodies; the third group considers organisms and their histories; the final constellation of disciplines focuses on their interactions. It is important to note, however, that these boundaries, groupings, and descriptions are a simplified characterization of biological research. In reality, the boundaries between disciplines are fluid, and most disciplines frequently borrow techniques from each other. For example, evolutionary biology leans heavily on techniques from molecular biology to determine DNA sequences, which assist in understanding the genetic variation of a population; and physiology borrows extensively from cell biology in describing the function of organ systems.

Structure of life

DNA sequences and structures]] Main articles: Molecular biology, Cell biology, Genetics, Developmental biology Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated. Cell biology studies the physiological properties of cells, as well as their behaviors, interactions, and environment. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like bacteria and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like humans. Understanding cell composition and how they function is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important in the fields of cell and molecular biology. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types. Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. In modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of genetic interactions. Within organisms, genetic information generally is carried in chromosomes, where it is represented in the chemical structure of particular DNA molecules. Genes encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a large role in influencing (though, in many instances, not completely determining) the final phenotype of the organism. Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop. Originating in embryology, modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation, and "morphogenesis," which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs, and anatomy. Model organisms for developmental biology include the round worm Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the zebrafish Brachydanio rerio, the mouse Mus musculus, and the weed Arabidopsis thaliana.

Physiology of organisms

Main articles: Physiology, Anatomy Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields. Anatomy is an important branch of physiology and considers how organ systems in animals, such as the nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with medically oriented disciplines such as neurology and immunology.

Diversity and evolution of organisms

immunology of a population of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a fitness landscape. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak]] Main articles: Evolutionary biology, Botany, Zoology Evolutionary biology is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, or herpetology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology also makes use of paleontologists, who use the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as theoreticians in areas such as population genetics and evolutionary theory. In the 1990s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology. Related fields which are often considered part of evolutionary biology are phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy. The two major traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines are botany and zoology. Botany is the scientific study of plants. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and evolution of plant life. Zoology involves the study of animals, including the study of their physiology within the fields of anatomy and embryology. The common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in molecular biology, molecular genetics, and developmental biology. The ecology of animals is covered under behavioral ecology and other fields.

Classification of life

The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy, which includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted. The International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.

Interactions of organisms

International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature]] Main articles: Ecology, Ethology, Behavior, Biogeography Ecology studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the interactions between organisms and their environment. The environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as climate and geology, as well as the other the organisms that share its habitat. Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and populations to ecosystems and the biosphere. As can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines. Ethology studies animal behavior (particularly of social animals such as primates and canids), and is sometimes considered a branch of zoology. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book The expression of the emotions in animals and men influenced many ethologists. Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the Earth, focusing on topics like plate tectonics, climate change, dispersal and migration, and cladistics.

History of the word "biology"

Formed by combining the Greek βίος (bios), meaning 'life', and λόγος (logos), meaning 'study of', the word "biology" in its modern sense seems to have been introduced independently by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur, 1802) and by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Hydrogéologie, 1802). The word itself is sometimes said to have been coined in 1800 by Karl Friedrich Burdach, but it appears in the title of Volume 3 of Michael Christoph Hanov's Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae: Geologia, biologia, phytologia generalis et dendrologia, published in 1766.

History

Main articles: History of biology, History of medicine, History of genetics Major discoveries in biology include:
- Cell theory
- Germ theory of disease
- Genetics
- Evolution
- DNA

External links

- [http://www.rom.on.ca/biodiversity/biocode/biocode1997.html BioCode]: A proposal for organism naming.
- [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books NCBI Open-Access Books]
- PhyloCode, [http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index.html]
- [http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life]: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity.
- [http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=index-html BioOne] Bioscience research journals.
- [http://www.bionews.in/biologynews.htm Biology News] Biology News, Articles and Research discoversies.

Dreiecknetzpapier

Dreiecknetzpapier gehört zu den mathematischen Papieren und ist mit einem dreieckigen Koordinatennetz (gleichseitige Dreiecke) versehen. Es ermöglicht zum Beispiel das einfache Zeichnen von Gegenständen in einer isometrischen Perspektive, weshalb man es auch als Isometriepapier bezeichnet. Kategorie:Mathematik

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Arizona Biodesign Institute

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Bioscience

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Dreiecknetzpapier

A

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